The effect of mechanically activated fly ash, crystalline admixture, and nano alumina on the fresh properties, mechanical properties, and self-healing of cement mortars
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.20450/mjcce.2025.3022Keywords:
mechanically activated fly ash, mortars, self-healing, circular economy, crystalline admixture, transitional nano aluminaAbstract
Reducing the carbon dioxide (CO2) footprint in the construction industry is a key global objective in the pursuit of sustainability, especially considering that Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) production is a significant contributor to global CO₂ emissions. Numerous advanced technological solutions have been explored to mitigate this impact, with one promising approach being the partial replacement of cement with supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs), aligning with the principles of a circular economy. This study aimed to develop green mortars by replacing 16 wt.% of cement with mechanically activated fly ash. In addition, the effects of the addition of 1 wt.% crystalline admixture and 0.25 wt.% transitional nano-alumina on the fresh properties, the hardened mechanical properties, and self-healing efficiency were examined. The inclusion of mechanically activated fly ash caused a slight delay in the setting time compared with the reference mortar. However, incorporating 1 wt.% crystalline admixture into the fly ash–modified mortar resulted in a significant delay in the setting time. The mechanical properties of the modified mortars remained consistent with the expected values for conventional mortars. The highest self-healing efficiency was observed in mortars containing 16 wt.% mechanically activated fly ash and 1 wt.% crystalline admixture, achieving 36% self-healing efficiency after 28 days, which increased to 89% after 56 days, and 96% after 90 days of curing. Similarly, mortars incorporating 0.25 wt.% transitional nano-alumina also achieved 96% self-healing efficiency after 90 days. However, the addition of 0.25 wt.% transitional nano-alumina exhibited a delayed self-healing effect, with only 10% self-healing efficiency after 28 days and 63% after 56 days of curing.
Keywords: mechanically activated fly ash, mortars, self-healing, circular economy, crystalline admixture, transitional nano-alumina
References
(1) World Green Building Council https://worldgbc.org/advancing-net-zero/embodied-carbon/ (accessed 2024 -09 -14).
(2) Xu, G.; Shi, X. Characteristics and Applications of Fly Ash as a Sustainable Construction Material: A state-of-the-art review. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2018, 136, 95–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2018.04.010
(3) Hemalatha, T.; Ramaswamy, A. A Review on Fly Ash Characteristics - Towards Promoting High Volume Utilization in Developing Sustainable Concrete. J. Clean. Prod. 2017, 147, 546–559. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.01.114
(4) CE Center Circular Economy Policy Research Center, 2019, CO2 Mineralization for Sustainable Construction, https://circulareconomy.europa.eu/platform/sites/default/files/5-co2-mineralisation-for-sustainable-construction-materials-nl_1.pdf (accessed 2024 -09 -14).
(5) Klima, K.M.; Schollbach, K.; Brouwers, H.J. H.; Yu, Q. Thermal and Fire Resistance of Class F Fly Ash Based Geopolymers- A Review., Constr. Build. Mater. 2022, 323, 126529. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.126529
(6) Akmalaiuly, K.; Berdikul, N.; Pundienè, I.; Pranckevičienè, J. The Effect of Mechanical Activation of Fly Ash on Cement-Based Materials Hydration and Hardened State Properties, Materials 2023, 16(8), 2959. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16082959
(7) Ez-zaki, H.; Diouri, A.; Maher, M.; Aidi, A.; Guedira, T. Effect of Mechanical Activation of Fly Ash Added to Moroccan Portland Cement, MATEC Web Conf. 2018, 149, 01074. https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201814901074
(8) Sun, Y.; Wang, Z.H.; Park, D.J.; Kim, W.S.; Kim, H.S.; Yan, S.R.; Lee, H.S. Analysis of the Isothermal Hydration Heat of Cement Paste Containing Mechanically Activated Fly Ash, Thermochim. Acta 2022, 715, 179273. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tca.2022.179273
(9) De Belie, N.; Gruyaert, E.; Al-Tabbaa, A.; Antonaci, P.; Baera, C.; Bajare, D.; Darquennes, A.; Davies, R.; Ferrara, L.; Jefferson, T.; Litina, C.; Miljevic, B.; Otlewska, A.; Ranogajec, J.; Roig-Flores, M.; Paine, K.; Lukowski, P.; Serna, P.; Tulliani, J.-M.; Jonkers, H. A Review of Self-Healing Concrete for Damage Management of Structures, Adv. Mat. Interfaces 2018 5(17), 1800074. https://doi.org/10.1002/admi.201800074
(10) Mohamed, A.; Zhou, Y.; Bertolesi, E.; Mengmei Liu, M.; Liao, F.; Fan, M. Factors Influencing Self-Healing Mechanisms of Cementitious Materials: A review, Constr. and Build. Mater. 2023, 393, 131550. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.131550
(11) Lefever, G.; Charkieh, A. S.; Abbass, M.; Van Hemelrijck, D.; Snoeck, D.; Aggelis, D. G. Ultrasonic Evaluation of Self-Healing Cementitious Materials with Superabsorbent Polymers: Mortar vs. Concrete, Dev. Built Environ. 2023, 13, 100112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dibe.2022.100112
(12) Zheng, D.; Ulerio II, G.; Denduluri, V. S.; Juenger, M.; Van Oort, E. Permeability and Self-Healing Behavior of Alkali Activated Geopolymers for Well Cementing Applications, Geoenergy Sci. Eng. 2024, 243, 213265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoen.2024.213265
(13) Deeba, S.; Ammasi, A. K. State-of-The-Art Review on Self-Healing in Mortar, Concrete, and Composites. Case Stud. Constr. Mater. 2024,20, e03298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2024.e03298
(14) Wang, Ј.Y.; De Belie, N.; Verstraete, W. Diatomaceous Earth as a Protective Vehicle for Bacteria Applied for Self-Healing Concrete, J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotech. 2012, 39, 567–577. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10295-011-1037-1
(15) Ismail, M.; Toumi, A.; François, R.; Gagn´ e, R. Effect of Crack Opening on The Local Diffusion of Chloride in Inert Materials, Cem. Concr. Res. 2004, 34, 711–716. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2003.10.025
(16) Kan, L.L.; Shi, H.S.; Sakulich, A.R.; Li, V.C. Self-Healing Characterization of Engineered Cementitious Composite Materials, ACI Mater. J. 2010, 107, 617–624. https://doi.org/10.14359/51664049
(17) Jakhrani, S. H.; Qudoos, A.; Gi Kim, H.; Kyu Jeon, I.; Suk Ryou, J. Review on The Self-Healing Concrete-Approach and Evaluation Techniques, J. Ceram. Process. Res. 2019, 20, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.36410/jcpr.2019.20..1
(18) Li, V.C.; Herbert, E. Robust Self-Healing Concrete for Sustainable Infrastructure, J. Adv. Concr. Technol. 2012, 10, 207–218. https://doi.org/10.3151/jact.10.207
(19) Mahmoodi, S.; Sadeghian, P. Self-healing concrete: A Review of Recent Research Developments and Existing Research Gaps, Annu. Conf. - Can. Soc. Civ. Eng. 2019, 1–10
(20) Lefever, G.; Aggelis D. G.; De Belie, N.; Van Hemelrijck, D.; Snoeck, D. 4 - Nanomaterials in Self-Healing Cementitious Composites, Nano-Tailored Multi-Functional Cementitious Composites. 2022, 141-159. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85229-6.00013-5
(21) Report on Chemical Admixtures for Concrete, ACI Committee 212, American Concrete Institute (ACI), 2010, Ch. 15.
(22) Liu, C.; He, X.; Deng, X.; Wu, Y.; Zheng, Z.; Liu, J.; Hui, D. Application of Nanomaterials in Ultra-High Performance Concrete: A review. Nanotechnol. Rev. 2020, 9(1), 1427-1444.
https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2020-0107
(23) Goyal, R.; Verma, V. K.; Singh, N. Nanomaterials Based Self-Healing Concrete, Mater. Today: Proc. 2023; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2023.03.553
(24) Farzadnia, N.; Abang Ali, A. A.; Demirboga, R. Characterization of high strength mortars with nano alumina at elevated temperatures. Cem. Concr. Res. 2013, 54, 43-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2013.08.003
(25) Cuenca, E; D'Ambrosio, L.; Lizunov. D.; Tretjakov, A.; Volobujeva, O.; Ferrara, L. Mechanical Properties and Self-Healing Capacity of Ultra High Performance Fibre Reinforced Concrete With Alumina Nano-Fibres: Tailoring Ultra High Durability Concrete For Aggressive Exposure Scenarios, Cem. Concr. Compos. 2021, 118, 103956 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2021.103956
(26) Shao, Q.; Zheng, K.; Zhou, X.; Zhou, J.; Zeng, X. Enhancement of nano-alumina on long-term strength of Portland cement and the relation to its influences on compositional and microstructural aspects. Cem. Concr. Comp. 2019, 98, 39-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2019.01.016
(27) Zhou, J.; Chen, L.; Liu, Z.; He, F.; Zheng, K. Effect of transitional aluminas on Portland cement hydration, phase assemblage and the correlation to ASR preventing effectiveness. Cem. Concr. Res. 2021, 151, 106622.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2021.106622
(28) Scrivener, K. L.; Nonat, A. Hydration of cementitious materials, present and future. Cem. Concr. Res. 2011, 41(7), 651-665. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2011.03.026
(29) Fidanchevski, E.; Angjusheva, B.; Jovanov, V.; Murtanovski, P.; Vladiceska, Lj.; Aluloska, N.S.; Nikolic, J.K.; Ipavec, A.; Šter, K.; Mrak, M; Dolenec, S. Technical and Radiological Characterization of Fly Ash and Bottom Ash From Thermal Power Plant, J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem. 2021, 330, 685–694.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10967-021-07980-w
(30) Strzałkowska, E. Morphology and chemical composition of mineral matter present in fly ashes of bituminous coal and lignite, Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2021, 18, 2533–2544. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-020-03016-0
(31) Pavlík, Z.; Záleská, M.; Pavlíková, M.; Pivák, A.; Nábělková, J.; Lauermannová, A.-M.; Jankovský, O.; Jiříčková, A.; Pilař, L.; Sedmidubský. D. Eco-Friendly Construction Mortars for Heavy Metals Immobilization – Effect of Partial PC Replacement by Lignite-Based Fly Ash and Prolonged High Humidity Curing on Physical and Chemical Parameters, J. Build. Eng. 2024, 97, 110919. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2024.110919
(32) Bossert, J.; E. Fidancevska, E. Effect of Mechanical Activation on the Sintering of Transition
Nanoscaled Alumina Sci. Sinter. 2007, 39, 117-125. https://doi.org/10.2298/SOS0702117B
(33) BS EN 196-1: (Method of Testing Cement) Determination of strength
(34) EN 1015-6: (Methods of test for mortar for masonry) Determination of bulk density of fresh mortar
(35) EN 1015-3: (Methods of test for mortar for masonry) Determination of consistence of fresh mortar
(36) EN 1015-7: (Methods of test for mortar for masonry) Determination of air content of fresh mortar
(37) EN 480-2: (Admixtures for concrete, mortar and grout - Test methods ) Determination of setting time
(38) EN 1015-11: (Methods of test for mortar for masonry ) Determination of flexural and compressive strength of hardened mortar
(39) Stefanovska, I.; Fidanchevski, E. Self-Healing of Cement Mortars Based on Fly Ash and Crystalline Admixture, MATEC Web Conf. 2023, 378, 02018. https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/202337802018
(40) Van Tittelboom, K.; De Belie, N. Self-Healing in Cementitious Materials—A review, Materials 2013, 6, 2182-2217. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma6062182
(41) Termkhajornkit, P.; Nawa, T.; Yamashiro, Y.; T. Saito, T. Self-Healing Ability of Fly Ash–Cement Systems, Cem. Concr. Compos. 2009, 31, 195-203 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2008.12.009
(42) EN 13057: (Products and systems for the protection and repair of concrete structures - Test methods) Determination of resistance of capillary absorption
(43) Ferrara, L.; Asensi, E. C.; Lo Monte, F.; Flores, M. R.; Moreno, M. S.; Snoeck, D.; Van Mullem, T.; De Belie, N. Experimental Characterization of the Self-Healing Capacity of Cement Based Materials: An Overview, Proceedings. 2018, 2, 454. https://doi.org/10.3390/ICEM18-05322
(44) Quercia, G.; Spiesz, P.; Hüsken, G.; Brouwers, H. SCC modification by use of amorphous nano-silica. Cem. Concr. Comp. 2013, 45, 69-81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2013.09.001
(45) Xiao, M.; Xi, J.; Qiu, P.; Deng, C.; Li, F.; Wei, J.; Gao, P.; Yu, Q. Evaluation of Tensile Properties and Cracking Potential Evolution of Fly Ash-Cement Mortar at Early Age Based on Digital Image Correlation Method, Constr. Build. Mater. 2024, 412, 134855. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.134855
(46) Shokravi, H.; Mohammadyan-Yasouj, S. E.; Rahimian Koloor, S. S.; Petrů, M.; Heidarrezaei, M. Effect of Alumina Additives on Mechanical and Fresh Properties of Self-Compacting Concrete: A Review, Processes. 2021, 9(3), 554 https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9030554
(47) Concrete Technology, 2nd ed.; A.M. Neville, J.J. Brooks, Essex, England, 2010.
(48) Fly Ash Facts for Highway Engineers, Technical Report, American Coal Ash Association, Washington, DC, 2003.
(49) Ulaz, B.; Turanli, L.; Yucel, H.; Goncuoglu, M. C.; Culfaz, A. Pozzolanic Activity of Clinoptilolite: A Comparative Study With Silica Fume, Fly Ash and a Non-Zeolitic Natural Pozzolan, Cem. Concr. Res. 2010, 40, 398-404. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2009.10.016
(50) Hossain, M.; Sultana, R.; Patwary, M.; N. Khunga, N.; Sharma, P.; Shaker, S. Self-Healing Concrete for Sustainable Buildings- A review, Environ. Chem. Lett. 2022, 20, 1265-1273.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-021-01375-9
(51) Snoeck, D.; De Belie, N. Autogenous Healing in Strain-Hardening Cementitious Materials With and Without Superabsorbent Polymers: an 8-year study, Front. Mater., 2019, 6(48) 1-12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmats.2019.00048
(52) Cuenca, E.; Mezzena, A.; Ferrara, L. Synergy Between Crystalline Admixtures and Nano-Constituents in Enhancing Autogenous Healing Capacity of Cementitious Composites Under Cracking and Healing Cycles in Aggressive Waters, Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 226, 121447. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.121447
(53) El Fami, N.; Ez-zaki, H. ; Boukhari, A.; Khachani, N.; Diouri, A. Influence of Mechanical Activation of Fly Ash on The Properties of Portland Cement Mortars, Mater. Today: Proc. 2022, 58(4) 1419-1422 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2022.02.340
(54) Zhang, W.; Zheng, Q.; Ashour, A.; Han, B. Self-healing cement concrete composites for resilient infrastructures: A review. Compos. B: Eng. 2020, 189, 107892. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2020.107892
Downloads
Published
Versions
- 2025-06-29 (2)
- 2025-05-28 (1)
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Irina Stefanovska, Goran Markovski, Toni Arangjelovski, Dime Janchev, Vojo Jovanov, Ane Anchev, Nikolina Stamatovska Aluloska, Aleksandar Zlateski, Aleksandar Zhurovski, Emilija Fidanchevski
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
